Disaser Management - 1785 Words

Trident University International Marvell R. Dean MHES 509 Module 1 1. How is a response to destruction from a terrorist incident different from a response to a natural disaster? Be specific, give examples, and quote from the readings. 2. You are a volunteer for the American Red Cross. You are to enter a scene of destruction in order to assist wounded victims. What are some precautions that you must take? What are some restrictions placed on you? From whom do you receive clearance? 3. First responders should isolate hazards by establishing control zones. There are three types of control zones. List them and give examples. Cite your sources. Difference Between Response to†¦show more content†¦Many Americans watching the Government response to Hurricanes Rita and Katrina as it play out in the media could not believe the finger pointing that was going on between our elected leaders as many victims struggled to get their life in order. With the National Response Framework initial responsibility remains with the local elected officials and each level of the government above that will monitor and remain ready with assistance if requested. This will allow needed resources to get where they are needed without the internal bickering of the past. The Emergency Support Function Annexes within the National Response Framework ensures multi-agency interoperability and encompasses the other components of the NRF. Red Cross Entering Scene of Destruction The Red Cross has been chartered by Congress to help people prepare for, prevent, and respond to emergencies and provide relief for survivors of disasters (NRF, 2008). As a Red Cross volunteer you should ensure you are not working against the situation. Although you are going there to assist those effected by the disaster you will need to make sure you do not become a distraction or even worse needing to be assisted yourself. Working within the system with the Incident Commander and his staff will ensure you are part of the team and not working against these efforts. Having an understanding of the policies, guidance, and processes in place will

Teaching Curriculum For Teaching Maths - 2191 Words

Part A Effective pedagogy in maths is conveyed in a variety of ways by teachers in the primary classroom. Teachers use and adapt these pedagogies through developing their experience in the classroom, critically reflecting on their lessons and consciously thinking about the different ways in which children best learn maths. Many theorists have discussed and influenced pedagogy in detail through a behaviourist or constructivist approach which can be implemented through the teaching of maths. Behaviourism is a concept which the theorist Skinner drew on. Pollard (2014) explains that behaviourist theory incorporates the role of the teacher as the focus in lessons and pupils are observers, who listen to information and have little interaction†¦show more content†¦This method of thinking relates to a constructivist approach to teaching maths. Piaget was a constructivist theorist and had the belief that learning in school should be demonstrated through experiences and interactions within your surroundings (Fosnot, 2013). Vygotsky, another theorist, went further with his understanding of this, demonstrating social constructivism, with the belief that allowing social interaction with a group of children and adults would enable pupils to develop their learning and allow them to learn from each other’s experiences (Tucker, 2010). This social constructivist approach proposes that group work is therefore essential in allowing children to develop an understanding of aspects in maths. Vygotsky believes in the importance of interaction with other peers to develop learning (Muijs and Reynolds, 2001) and this collaborative learning approach would allow for this. However, Hansen (2011) explains that when children work in small groups they may misunderstand key teaching points and errors may occur in their work. For this not to occur the teacher must assist and observe each maths group effectively to make sure they each understand their work fully. It can also be argued though that to allow for errors in children’s work when working in a group would â€Å"encourage children to review their thinking, leading to self-correction† (Anghileri, as cited by Hansen, 2011, p.14). The teacher must therefore be the

Game Theoretic Model Predictive Control †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Game Theoretic Model Predictive Control. Answer: Introduction During the course of the event planning, the usage of the database for storing the data acts to be the most important part of the event planning of the organization. The event that is to be progressed requires the data that is required for the functioning of the event too be stored which increases the efficiency of processing of the event. The event that is to be performed will be benefitted due to the fact of storing data will ensure that there is no lagging of the data that might be required for providing proper servicing of the event in multinational companies. This report will discuss about the advantages of maintaining a data base of the company. This report will also provide the literature review of the benefits that the organizations will enjoy due to the methodology of having the data base to the latest edition of data possible. This report will also provide the literature review of the problems that will be faced by the organizatoins during the management of the event if the data base is not structured in an efficient framework. The problem caused in the traditional means of data storage are that the data that is stored by the traditional data storage technique are that the requirements are not found in case of finding the data that has been entered long time ago. The traditional data storage platforms have been suffering due to the fact that there are security issues of the data that are being stored in the traditional method are not up to the mark and the data can be accessed by the imposters without any hindrance coming in their way of performing the crime. To avoid the unauthenticated access to the data by the imposters without keeping any instance of the access being made by the imposters. The data once lost can never be recovered unless proper data base is maintained by the third party organizations. The data related to the old information that are stored in the databases can be found only in case of the proper data storage functioning in the latest versions of the data base. This unauthorized access t o the database causes the leaking of data of the clients that harms the clients. The problems that are recovered with the usage of the data base is that it prevents the database to receive the enhanced updates that the company of the platform provider provides. With passing time, the passwords that are applied in the database gets weak in nature and the vulnerability of the database increases. The database that has not been updated, lacks the identity of the database as the database requires the audit of the database to stay updated in order to function in an efficient manner. The major problem statement is that the difficulty in the storage of the data for a prolonged time. Benefits of using the data base According to Arulraj, Pavlo Dulloor, (2015, May), to maintain the data base to its most efficient stature of storing the data in a relevant platform is the best solution to the problem. This storage of the data requires a healthy infrastructure of the organization to maintain the basic initiation process of the updating process. According to Stephens, Smith Mahanti, (2015), with storing the data base regularly the performance of the event management by the third party company gets better by minimum of 10%. This better and efficient functioning of the computing devices leads to the efficient execution of the task that is to be completed by the client. The storage of data in a database fastens the networking acticity by 40%. Coronel Morris (2016) in their book stated that with the increase in the speed of the processor, the computing system can perform much more extensive jobs that the processor did support previously. According to Dbarre, Hauert Doebeli, (2014) with the increase in the speed of the computing device the performance of the networking system increases which in turn increases the production from every computing system present in the organization. This increase in the production of each single device results to a mass [increase in terms of the production of the organization annually. Ji Findling, (2015), in their book stated that with the aspect of updating the data base one of the most important benefit is security of the system. The security of the system largely depends on the stature the data base is at the present. The security provided by the data base to the data that is stored in the data base is due to the robustness of the framework of the database. This disables the cyber criminals to modulate the retrieved data in order to which they have retrieved illegally without the concern of the genuine clients of the data base. Protection from the software issues According to Kadam Onkar, (2015), the data base protects the software from the glitches that generally concern the software that are not stored in the latest version of the database. The framework of the data base is considered to be essential for the proper working of the are the firewall and the operating system. Again according to Arulraj, Pavlo Dulloor, (2015, May), the fire wall acts as a protection of the data base that prevents the data base from getting attacked by the Trojan viruses. The bugs are also the main reason from which the data base must be protected in order to gain the data that is stored in the database in modulated. The data stored faces the problems due to the bugs that harm the data stored which can be prevented by storing the data in the data base with a proper infrastructure of the system. The infrastructure that are used in the database are robust enough to protect the data that is stored in the database from the Trojan viruses that tend to affect the dat a in case of teh data getting stored in the traditional database. The new versions of the data base that enter the market are proof from the bugs that affect the previous versions of the data base. Recommendations For saving time during planning, an event constrains methodologies namely: - Development of a system A specific system must be designed by the organization that will conquest the necessities of the client. The necessities of the event must be recorded in the system and the marking criteria of the event must be present in the system which will act as the reference for the processing of the event. Prepare a to do list A to do list can be prepared by the organization that has to be performed in the course of the task. The deadline to perform the task can be set before starting the project. The project can have a fixed deadline to get completed that acts as the reference for the organization to progress with the work of the event. This reference time line helps in completion of the project in accurate timing. The estimated time line also enables the organization to provide an expected time that is required for the completion of the project. The completion of the project is most viable to meet the deadline of the project if the progression of the project is made according to the reference that is set for the task. The delivery of the product is made in time. Hence usage of the database is recommended for the efficient functioning of the organization. Using of Project Management tool The usage of project management tool enables the organization to prepare the list of deliverables that are to be performed. This project management software enables the organization to fix the dates for the task. The project management tool helps in setting the dates according to the holidays that are present in the upcoming weeks in which the project will be performed. The working hours for each day can be set differentially in the project management tool. This helps in calculating the working hours of the entire event which makes the proceeding of the event more precise. The hours once calculated makes the definition of the job more elaborative in nature. The elaboration in the task enables the event manger to get the proper idea of the number of employees that will be required to complete the event in time. Budget planning The budget of the project must be fixed before starting the project. this fixed budget enables the organizing committee to get a gross amount of expenditure that will be required for the completion of the project. This budget finalization helps the organization to fix the budget of the entire project that helps in informing the clients to get an access to the cost tat will be incurred in the completion of the project. this methodology will ensure that the organization will not need to ponder upon the clients frequently for the alteration of the budget, which decreases the goodwill of the organization. This methodology is performed with the help of storing the data in the data base which helps the organization to gain the ideas and the required references that will be used for the market planning. Research Methodology The research methodology that is used in the processing of the project is the Quantitative methodology. The methods that are taken by the researchers in order to proceed in the functioning of the project. The methodology of proceeding in the project is completely dependent on the identification of the research areas for the progress in the project that leads to the evaluation of the individual in terms of the physical nature and the manual involvement of the individuals with the topic that is taken under consideration. Quantitative research methodology fails to describe the human expression regarding the particulartopic but the evaluation of the topic with regards to the mass of individuals casting their reviews on a particular topic finds ease in the Quantitative research, which is the major reason of the usage of this methodology. The data that are gathered contains information that include the solicit measurability of the data that is provided by the mass. The data that are gained from the quantitative research methodology is standardized and the data is tested from the evaluation of the mass. The data that are provided by the quantitative research methodologies are more reliable than the data that is acquired from the qualitative form of data collection. The data that are acquired using the technique of Quantitative data is represented in the forms of graphs, tables or figures that represents the evaluated data that has been acquired from the mass by taking surveys from the individuals and plotting the average database. The issues that are caused due to the lack of upgrading of the database of the computing device are as follows: - Security Issues The main problems that the database faces due is the security of the database. As days passes by the infrastructure of the database weakens that causes ease for the cyber criminals to get access to the data of the clients (McMillan, Rodrik Verduzco-Gallo, 2014). Deprived from enhanced features In case of the database not being updated for a long period causes the data base to stay aloof from the latest updates that the software company provides for the efficient functioning of the project. The efficiency of the database decreases due to the outdated versions of the database that makes the database obsolete. Bugs Data that are stored in the database are vulnerable to the bugs that are present in the internet throough which the data of the database is accessed (Silva, Dutilh Edwards, 2016). Reduction in cost The data which is ever increasing for an multinational company the storage of the data requires a lot of storage space. The initial investment of installing a database helps the organization in storing of unlimited data of the company with just the initial installing cost of the database. Data Interpretation The storage of data in the database has been the reason behind the lessening of the cyber-attacks on the data base of the clients. The rate of cyber-attacks has decreased by 31% since the last decade (MacWhinney, 2014). According to a survey taken among 50 multi-national companies, it is concluded that with the help of storing the data in a data base of the industries, the revenue that is spent on the department of storage facilities is reduced by 13% annually (Silva, Dutilh Edwards, 2016). The increase in using of the database for storing data in multinational companies have increased significantly since the last 15 years (Wrench, 2017). Conclusion From the above report, it can be concluded that the storage of the data in the infrastructural database acts as one of the most important aspects of maintaining a data. To keep the data protected from the imposters the data must be stored in a database with sufficient robustness of the framework. The data tends to be destroyed in case of lack of usage of the data for a long period of time. The survey that has been conducted also proves the importance of the updating of the data base system. Data base are created to store information of specific institution or organizations. In case of not updating the data base the space in the data base will finish very fast which will not allow the new data to get stored in the data base. In case of updating of the data base the data that are stored previously are replaced the new data automatically which causes the recycling of the storage space of the data base which reduces the cost of the data storage of the organizations. Reference Arulraj, J., Pavlo, A., Dulloor, S. R. (2015, May). Let's talk about storage recovery methods for non-volatile memory database systems. InProceedings of the 2015 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data(pp. 707-722). ACM. Coronel, C., Morris, S. (2016).Database systems: design, implementation, management. Cengage Learning. Dbarre, F., Hauert, C., Doebeli, M. (2014). Social evolution in structured populations.Nature Communications,5, 3409. Groomer, S. M., Murthy, U. S. (2018). Continuous auditing of database applications: An embedded audit module approach. InContinuous Auditing: Theory and Application(pp. 105-124). Emerald Publishing Limited. Ji, N. Y., Findling, R. L. (2015). An update on pharmacotherapy for autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents.Current opinion in psychiatry,28(2), 91-101. Kadam, K. S., Onkar, V. C. (2015). A review paper on student information supervision system.International Journal of Research In Science Engineering,1, 66-72. MacWhinney, B. (2014).The CHILDES project: Tools for analyzing talk, Volume II: The database. Psychology Press. McCracken, M. W., Ng, S. (2016). FRED-MD: A monthly database for macroeconomic research.Journal of Business Economic Statistics,34(4), 574-589. McMillan, M., Rodrik, D., Verduzco-Gallo, . (2014). Globalization, structural change, and productivity growth, with an update on Africa.World Development,63, 11-32. O'neil, P. (2014).DATABASE: principles programming performance. Morgan Kaufmann. Rasmussen, F. A., Thygesen, K. S. (2015). Computational 2D materials database: electronic structure of transition-metal dichalcogenides and oxides.The Journal of Physical Chemistry C,119(23), 13169-13183. Silva, G., Dutilh, B., Edwards, R. (2016). FOCUS2: agile and sensitive classification of metagenomics data using a reduced database.bioRxiv, 046425. Stephens, E. R., Smith, D. B., Mahanti, A. (2015). Game theoretic model predictive control for distributed energy demand-side management.IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid,6(3), 1394-1402. Wrench, J. S. (2017). Quantitative Methodology.The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods.

King Lear Essays (1251 words) - Literature, King Lear, British Films

King Lear King Lear, by William Shakespeare, is a tragic tale of filial conflict, personal transformation, and loss. The story revolves around the King who foolishly alienates his only truly devoted daughter and realizes too late the true nature of his other two daughters. A major subplot involves the illegitimate son of Gloucester, Edmund, who plans to discredit his brother Edgar and betray his father. With these and other major characters in the play, Shakespeare clearly asserts that human nature is either entirely good, or entirely evil. Some characters experience a transformative phase, where by some trial or ordeal their nature is profoundly changed. We shall examine Shakespeare's stand on human nature in King Lear by looking at specific characters in the play: Cordelia who is wholly good, Edmund who is wholly evil, and Lear whose nature is transformed by the realization of his folly and his descent into madness. The play begins with Lear, an old king ready for retirement, preparing to divide the kingdom among his three daughters. Lear has his daughters compete for their inheritance by judging who can proclaim their love for him in the grandest possible fashion. Cordelia finds that she is unable to show her love with mere words: Cordelia. [Aside] What shall Cordelia speak? Love, and be silent. Act I, scene i, lines 63-64. Cordelia's nature is such that she is unable to engage in even so forgivable a deception as to satisfy an old king's vanity and pride, as we see again in the following quotation: Cordelia. [Aside] Then poor cordelia! And not so, since I am sure my love's More ponderous than my tongue. Act I, Scene i, lines 78-80. Cordelia clearly loves her father, and yet realizes that her honesty will not please him. Her nature is too good to allow even the slightest deviation from her morals. An impressive speech similar to her sisters' would have prevented much tragedy, but Shakespeare has crafted Cordelia such that she could never consider such an act. Later in the play Cordelia, now banished for her honesty, still loves her father and displays great compassion and grief for him as we see in the following: Cordelia. O my dear father, restoration hang Thy medicine on my lips, and let this kiss Repair those violent harms that my two sisters Have in reverence made. Act IV, Scene vii, lines 26-29. Cordelia could be expected to display bitterness or even satisfaction at her father's plight, which was his own doing. However, she still loves him, and does not fault him for the injustice he did her. Clearly, Shakespeare has crafted Cordelia as a character whose nature is entirely good, unblemished by any trace of evil throughout the entire play. As an example of one of the wholly evil characters in the play, we shall turn to the subplot of Edmund's betrayal of his father and brother. Edmund has devised a scheme to discredit his brother Edgar in the eyes of their father Gloucester. Edmund is fully aware of his evil nature, and revels in it as seen in the following quotation: Edmund. This is the excellent foppery of the world, that when we are sick in fortune, often the surfeits of our own behaviour, we make guilty of our disasters the sun, the moon, and stars; as if we were villains on necessity; fools by heavenly compulsion; knaves, thieves, and treachers by spherical predominance; drunkards, liars, and adulterers by an enforced obedience of planetary influence; and all that we are evil in, by a divine thrusting on. ... I should have been that I am, had the maidenliest star in the firmament twinkled on my bastardizing. Act I, scene ii, lines 127-137, 143-145. Clearly, Edmund recognizes his own evil nature and decides to use it to his advantage. He mocks the notion of any kind of supernatural or divine influence over one's destiny. Edgar must go into hiding because of Edmund's deception, and later Edmund betrays Gloucester himself, naming him a traitor which results in Gloucester's eyes being put out. Edmund feels not the slightest remorse for any of his actions. Later on, after the invading French army has been repelled, Lear and Cordelia have been taken captive and Edmund gives these chilling words to his captain: Edmund. Come hither captain; hark. Take thou this note: go follow them to prison; One step

Management Accounting Case Assignment Essays

Management Accounting Case Assignment Essays Management Accounting Case Assignment Essay Management Accounting Case Assignment Essay Management Accounting Case Assignment BY Allele Case 8-28. Evaluating a Companys Budget Procedures. 1 . Identify the problems that exist in Ferguson Sons Manufacturing Companys budgetary control system and explain how the problems are likely to reduce the effectiveness of the system. The overall companys strategy is not well defined by executives and communicated to the management. There is no goal other the cost reduction at total company level as well as at departmental level. Managers dont see connection between expenses, revenues and overall companys profitability. As a result managers are frustrated because instead of help that budget is suppose to bring it creates problems. Managers dont participate in budgets development; it is purely a task of an accounting department which sets up performance goals for the company as a whole and all its divisions. Accounting department also controls the execution; other departments managers are completely removed from that process, they are only informed about their departments performance at the monthly meeting. It turns out that department managers are accountable for the results that they never truly omitted to. This approach would lower companys performance on the long run, when managers loose motivation they are not interested to deliver good results. Accounting departments has a very distant relationship with other operational departments; they concentrate on evaluating only financial goals, looking strictly at the numbers. They are only concerned with the cost reduction and continue to tighten the individual budgets once performance goal is met. At the same time it looks like budget tightening strategy may become unreasonable because at some mint the only way the department can meet the budget is by sacrificing its quality for quantity. If quality becomes an issue, it may lose customers and potentials profits. The way the managers performance is being evaluated does not seem to be fair. Managers are not recognized well enough if they met the budget or even saved more than expected. They are being rewarded with the tighter budget every time they achieve the goal. However if expenses end up to be higher than predicted, managers get a low rating during their monthly performance evaluation. The only motivation for managers to meet the budget is trying to avoid the low performance rating. With the current strategy managers are not rewarded for the good performance instead they are punished in both cases when they meet the budget and get the tighter goal or when they dont deliver expected savings and given lower performance rating which also affect their income. In this circumstance some managers may decide to leave the company and it may be hard to replace them, especially the most experienced ones. Company will incur the additional costs related to hiring the replacements. Operational processes are not well coordinated when special orders are given analysis being done to investigate the cause and no recommendations are made on how to avoid certain costs and improve the performance. The work between departments is not well coordinated either because all departments are over concerned with meeting their monthly budgets. The maintenance department chooses not to help machine shop to fix their broken equipment Just to save time they need to meet their own department budget. However at the total companys level expenses are higher because of idle time that loud be avoided if the maintenance department reacted to the problem on a timely manner. When departments can, they choose to first perform the Jobs that could be done with less time than budgeted; as a result the more important Jobs are being postponed. As a result the whole companys performance may suffer. Company would have to pay additional costs for idle time or for delaying Jobs that are more critical but require more time to complete then allowed by the budget. 2. Explain how Ferguson Sons Manufacturing Companys budgetary control system could be revised to improve its effectiveness. To be more efficient the companys budget has to be done for the whole company. Departmental budgets should not be separately developed and evaluated since they are all part of the same company. In addition to setting cost reducing goals, it also has to set up revenue and profitability targets. In addition to financial, it should have non financial measurements against which performance should be evaluated. The overall companys strategy has to be reflected in the budget goals. Budgeting has to become a common effort for all level of managers when every manager participates n the goal setting discussions, agrees on the goal and feels accountability for the result. While developing budget, a set of clear and specific expectations has to be prepared which will help managers to compare actual and budgeted results. Accounting department role has to change, instead of setting goals and controlling the performance it has to provide support to managers to help them to set up their own goals and provide with data supported by analysis to help managers to understand where the potential problems can be and make a decision on how to improve the performance. Variance analysis has to be done on a regular basis, all variances to the plan have to be investigated and explained, and then appropriate action should be taken to avoid the potential variance in the future. Variance investigation should be a common effort for managers and accountants because while accountants are responsible for the financial part, managers provide expertise into other operational processes that they are responsible for in their departments. All the internal processes and expenses have to be analyses, especially ones that affect two or more departments. This would help to avoid some costs. To achieve companys efficiency, all its internal Once budget is set it has to be reviewed and adjusted during every budgeting cycle. The tightening of the budget would only make sense if it does not sacrifice quality and does not lower motivation. Companys goals have to be realistic and could be revised if internal or external conditions change. Executives should also revise their performance recognition system and to tie individual managers clear goals to the results. Once manager understands the goals and feels his accountability he would be better motivated to meet these goals. Company should develop effective rewards and recognitions system other then budget tightening to increase managers involvement in companys performance and to retain its best employees. Case 108-5. Ethics and the Manager; Rigging Standards. 1 . How did Preston Lansing probably rig the standard costs are the standards set too high or too low? Explain. Since Lansing rigged the standards so that they were always large favorable variances it means that he was setting standard costs too high because positive variance appears when goods produced at the lower costs then standards. That is he way to artificially overestimate Costs of Goods Sold and underestimate Operating Income up until the positive variance is recognized. The way the costs are manipulated is when the positive variances are gradually recognized throughout a year showing increasing performance in second and third quarter and demonstrating the highest performance in the forth quarter. 2. Should Preston Lansing be permitted to continue his practice of managing reported earnings? This is an example of earnings manipulation and it should not be permitted. First of all Preston is being rewarded based on last quarter/year end results. The bonus would not be as high if the earnings were not manipulated. This creates an ethical issue for the company. Manipulation should not be rewarded. Income Statement does not represent a true picture of companys performance which may hide the existing problems. This is not acceptable from the external reporting prospective, when external users of the information are being misguided on companys true performance. 3. What should Stacy Cummins do in this situation? Stacy was concerned about her findings and notified the president of the situation, but did not receive his support. She could go further and bring it to the attention of the Board of Directors, particularly the audit committee, and outline problems that it may create for the company. It may not have desirable results since Board of Directors may already be aware about the issue but does not want to change anything in the current situation. If Stacks actions have no results and she feels insecure in the current situation she may choose to leave the company to avoid potential problems if any controversy arises as a result of companys unacceptable accosting practices and she may be liable for the professional misconduct.

Fannie Farmer, Cookbook Author and Domestic Scientist

Fannie Farmer, Cookbook Author and Domestic Scientist Fannie Farmer Facts Known for: her famous cookbook, in which accurate measurements were introducedOccupation: cookbook author, educator, domestic scientistDates: March 23, 1857 - January 15, 1915Also known as: Fannie Merrit Farmer, Fannie Merritt Farmer Fannie Farmer Biography The publication of Fannie Farmers 1896 cookbook, The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, was an event in cooking history and in making domestic life a bit easier for family cooks, most of whom were women: she included very specific and accurate measurements. Before that cookbook, ingredient lists were estimates. Your results will vary was a phrase yet to become popular, but it sure described the older style recipes! Just as Marion Cunningham has in recent years edited the Fannie Farmer Cookbook so it can be revised to take into account newer preparation techniques and newer dietary preferences, so Fannie Farmer herself was adapting an older cookbook. Fannie Farmers parents, active Unitarians, lived just outside Boston. Her father, John Franklin Farmer, was a printer.   Her mother was Mary Watson Merritt Farmer. During her high school years in Massachusetts, Fannie Farmer (who never married) suffered a stroke with paralysis, or perhaps was stricken with polio.   She had to discontinue her education. After recovering some of her movement and being confined to bed for months, she worked as a mothers helper, where she learned her interest in and aptitude for cooking. Boston Cooking-School With her parents support and the encouragement of her employers, the Shaws, Fannie Farmer studied cooking under Mary J. Lincoln at the Boston Cooking-School. Lincoln published the Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, used in cooking schools which were at the time primarily aimed towards training professional cooks who would be servants to the upper middle class. The rising middle class, and the rise in the number of women who wanted to treat homemaking as their domestic profession in other words, more seriously and scientifically also found the cookbook useful. Fannie Farmer graduated from Lincolns school in 1889, remained as assistant director, and became director in 1894.   Her personality helped to draw students to the school. Fannie Farmers Cookbook Fannie Farmer revised and reissued the Boston Cooking-School  cookbook in 1896, with her improvements. She standardized measurements and thereby made the results more dependable.   The standardization of measurements in household cooking was a great advance to home cooking, and made food preparation easier for those who had not devoted time to attend cooking school. In 1902, Fannie Farmer left the Boston Cooking School to open Miss Farmers School of Cookery, aimed not at professional cooks but at training housewives. She was a frequent lecturer on domestic topics, and wrote several more cooking-related books before she died in Boston in 1915. The school continued until 1944. Selected Fannie Farmer Quotations With the progress of knowledge the needs of the human body have not been forgotten. During the last decade much time has been given by scientists to the study of foods and their dietetic value, and it is a subject which rightfully should demand much consideration from all. I certainly feel that the time is not far distant when a knowledge of the principles of diet will be an essential part of ones education. Then mankind will eat to live, be able to do better mental and physical work, and disease will be less frequent. Progress in civilization has been accompanied by progress in cookery. Fannie Farmer Bibliography The 1896 Boston Cooking-School Cookbook, Fannie Merritt Farmer. Hardcover, September 1997. (reproduction) Original 1896 Boston Cooking School Cookbook Boston Cooking School Cook Book: A Reprint of the 1883 Classic, D. A. Lincoln. Paperback, July 1996. (reproduction) Chafing Dish Possibilities, Fannie Merritt Farmer, 1898. Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent, Fannie Merritt Farmer, 1904. What to Have for Dinner, Fannie Merritt Farmer, 1905. Catering for Special Occasions, with Menus and Recipes, Fannie Merritt Farmer, 1911. A New Book of Cookery, Fannie Merritt Farmer, 1912. Bibliography: Related The Fannie Farmer Cookbook, Marion Cunningham. Hardcover, September 1996. The American Frugal Housewife, Lydia Maria Child. Paperback, December 1999. (reproduction: originally published 1832-1845 an earlier attempt at making homemaking more scientific)

Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assessment - Essay Example No single agent in this economy might be better off without making another agent worse off. This leads to the achievement of allocative efficiency (MC=AR). It is known as â€Å"Pareto optimum allocation of resources† (Klein, 2007). Productive efficiency: In the long run, in a perfectly competitive market structure, the output is produced at the lowest level of average total cost. This phenomenon is known as productive efficiency (MC=ATC). The firms that incur high unit cost are inefficient and are not fit to stay in business in the long run. The forces of competition would not allow them to charge high price. Thus, they would be forced to quit industry in the long run. Dynamic efficiency: One important assumption in the competitive market structure is that all producers in the industry produce homogeneous products. Homogeneity of the products ensure that the products are similar in features and attributes and any single firm would not have the facility to make any innovation s uch that it would make the products of the firm to differentiated from the products of the other firms. This creates dynamic efficiency. No single firm would be able to enjoy competitive advantage over the others or enjoy any degree of monopoly power. Figure 1: Efficiency in perfect competition (Source: Author’s creation) Answer 2. ... Short Run Equilibrium In the short run, equilibrium is achieved at the point at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost. As long as value of marginal revenue (MR) exceeds value of marginal cost (MC), producer would expand output since profit level rises with rise in output (MR>MC, i.e., difference between MR and MC is positive). When marginal revenue is smaller than marginal cost, the producer would reduce output until the two values equate. Thus, in short run, profit maximizing price and output firm is determined at the position where MR equals MC. In short run, firms might earn super normal profit if average cost is less than average revenue, or conversely, they might incur a loss if the average cost is greater than average revenue. Figure 2: Short run equilibrium under monopolistic competitive market structure (Source: Author’s Creation) Long Run Equilibrium In long run, there are scopes of entry of new firms into the industry. Therefore, supernormal profit is erased in the long run. As new firms enter into the industry, demand faced by each firm decreases and Average revenue (AR) curve shifts leftwards. Consequently, supernormal profit falls. Firms would produce at the level at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost and price is determined by the interaction between average revenue and average cost. All firms earn normal profit in the long run. Some firms that incur loss in the short run would leave the industry in the long run and the remaining firms would earn normal profits. Figure 3: Long run equilibrium under monopolistic competitive market structure (Source: Author’s Creation) In case of monopolistic competition, in the long run, firms operate at the zero profit condition, which ensures that price

The Kansas City Gun Experiment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Kansas City Gun Experiment - Essay Example Experiments are not the only research designs used to conduct research. There are other types of data-gathering strategies that can be used such as surveys, case studies, participant observation and unobtrusive measures. The most common type of unobtrusive measure is the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) where existing data collected and maintained by the FBI is used. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is a part of UCR. This experiment undertaken by the Kansas City Police Department was based on the theory that gun seizures and gun crime are inversely proportional. According to this theory gun seizures increase with the decrease of gun crimes. In order to test this theory and to reduce gun crime in Kansas City the Police Department used the quasi experimental design. It ordered extra patrol attention on gun crime â€Å"hot spots†. They conducted a target beat for 29 weeks. Specific and varied techniques were used by officers to detect guns, illegal weapon owners and high-risk youths. In order to protect civil liberties all searches and frisks conducted had to conform to legal guidelines. All arrests made for carrying illegal weapons had to be approved by a supervisory detective. A University of Maryland evaluator accompanied the officers when they went out to gather information. The data gathered was then analyzed. It was found that gun seizures in the target area increased by more than 65 percent and gun crimes declined by 49 percent whereas there was no significant change in areas not covered by the experiment. There was also a significant drop in homicides in target areas. The experiment also proved that the police can implement a program to increase seizures of illegal guns and that the productivity of Police officers increased when they were given the opportunity to focus only on gun detection in crime hot spots without being duty-bound to answer service calls. This program was

Wetland And Water Environment Essay Example for Free

Wetland And Water Environment Essay Introduction Ecological restoration has been proven to be a very difficult and yet an extremely valuable undertaking. It is one of the major problems faced by every country in the world for it is the key to Mother Earth’s struggle for survival. Restoration pertains to the reestablishment and replenishment of natural wetland systems to be once more suitable for wetland creatures as their habitat. But, what wetland ecosystems are we pertaining to? What type of wetland ecosystem do we plan to target and why? Is it enough to establish any type of wetland ecosystem and be called â€Å"restoration†? As stated by Lovette (et al. , 2002), Australias enthusiasm for restoring and rehabilitating rivers and streams is growing at a fair rate yet most of the time, such projects fail to produce the desired results of improvement. This is due to the fact that these projects lack planning resulting to poorly defined project objectives and rehabilitation strategies. In addition to this matter, many social and political factors rather than a lack of technical skills were often major factors influencing the success of river restoration projects. Ecologists and restorationists took these questions in account and had included them as definitions of restoration and restoration-type activities. A simple yet very nifty definition of ecological restoration included in the 1992 report Restoration of Aquatics Ecosystems by the National Research Council (NRC), defined restoration as the â€Å"return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance.† The NRC declares that the concept of restoration to be further clarified by defining many types of restoration-related activities. Creation, reallocation, and enhancement are such activities that are similar to restoration, but vary in some aspect from rehabilitation of the original ecosystem to areas they once existed. Reintroduction of animals is also a major factor of restoration that must be taken in account.   The mere recreation of form without the specific function is not the essence of restoration, nor is having the function in the artificial pattern without even a close similitude to the real thing. The goal of restoration is to produce a natural, self-regulating ecosystem that functions perfectly with the landscape and conditions in which it occurs. Body   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To have a deeper understanding in the field of ecological restoration, let us first define terms that are used in the field of ecological restoration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Creation is defined as the construction of a wetland in an area that was not a wetland in the recent past (within the last 100-200 years) and that is isolated from existing wetlands (i.e., not directly adjacent) (Gwin, et al., 1999). In other words, creation occurs when a wetland is placed on the landscape by some human activity on a non-wetland site (Lewis, 1989). Normally, creation of a wetland in plot of land starts by digging out upland soils to an appropriate elevation suitable for the growth of wetland species by a proper hydrological pattern. Enhancement, as defined by Gwin, et al. (1999) is â€Å"the modification of specific structural features of an existing wetland to increase one or more functions based on management objectives, typically done by modifying site elevations or the proportion of open water. Although this term implies gain or improvement, a positive change in one wetland function may negatively affect other wetland functions. Enhancement may also be the alteration of a site to produce conditions that did not previously exist in order to accentuate one or more values of a site. For example, increasing the area of deep water by excavating parts of an emergent wetland may provide more duck habitat (the desired wetland value), but may decrease foraging and cover habitat for young fish (Lewis 1989). The term reallocation replacement pertains to altering or converting existing wetlands to create a different type of wetland. For example, transforming a developing wetland, like a swamp, to a pond will convert the habitat from one wetland type to a different type. A term commonly used during discussions of restoration is mitigation, which â€Å"refers to the restoration, creation, or enhancement of wetlands to compensate for permitted wetland losses (Lewis, 1989). It is stated in under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act that â€Å"wetlands may legally be destroyed, but their loss must be compensated for by the restoration, creation, or enhancement of other wetlands. Hypothetically, the policy aims retain the wetland’s quality. The Watershed Ecology Team if Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds have devised a list of principles which played a critical role to the success of a wide range of aquatic resource restoration programs and projects. These principles are applicable through the different stages in the process of wetland restoration and focus on scientific and technical issues. Nevertheless, in all environmental and ecological management activities, it is crucial to examine community perspectives and values. There are a lot of guiding principles that ecologists follow in the field of wetland and river restoration. Given below are some doctrines that may help in the restoration of the rivers in Western Australia, namely the Hutt, Greenough, and Chapman River. The common dilemma faced by these rivers is erosion of soil along their banks. This is due to the lack of vegetation to hold the soil in place. Because of this catastrophe, a number of the wild life, like birds nesting on the trees or the fishes in the river, is threatened to loose obtain damage to their habitat. The Chapman River Estuary, though a popular place, due to the lack of management, has degraded. Several erosions has occurred, weeds are numerous among the vegetation, and wildlife have been frequently disturbed. Restoration of these rivers considers several, yet not too costly stages. The first stage of the Greenough River Restoration Project cost approximately $11,000 while the second stage of the Greenough River Restoration Project needed a total funding of about $68,000 through Trust Funding. The Chapman River Foreshore Restoration Project at the Nanson Hamlet in Chapman Valley adhered principles which is slowly revitalizing the landscape, cost around $18,000. The purpose of the Hutt River Floodplain Management Plan (HRFMP) is to update the Advisory Committee on their status, investigations and implementation (ATAPATTU, 2001). A clear concept of the projects goals, objectives, performance, and desired outcome is a critical part in the success of the restoration project for it gives a vivid look on how the scheme should run. One principle, â€Å"Preserve and protect aquatic resources†, explains that existing ecosystems are critical in the conservation of biodiversity, and supply the weakened system with the necessary materials. Restoration, together with protection and preservation, can improve wetland systems in an immense level. In this principle, the first step to secure the revitalization of a system is to prevent further depletion (USEPA, 2006). According to Palmer (2005), five relevant features should be brought to mind during river restoration. They are a guiding image – by creating a vision of you goals and ideas, you have a concrete image of your desired outcome; improvement of ecosystems – by adding functionality to the factors in the ecosystem, you will have positive results that the environment supplies; increase in resilience – by generating flexible products that can recover when damaged, or surpass other products; doing no lasting harm – actions done in restoration should not give an ill effect to the surrounding countryside, and have a long-lasting positive effect on the target location; and completion of an ecological assessment – provide a written clearly defined results on the project (McGee, 2005). Restoration of natural structure and function plays a major role in the restoration of natural wetlands. In the recreation of a natural habitat, its structure must be deeply studied for if a flaw in the system occurs, the whole project could further damage the area or the surrounding terrain. The function should, as much as possible, be close to the existing system’s function to instill balance (USEPA, 2006). Conclusion and Recommendation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though there are quite a number of principles and guidelines that ecologists use in there quest to restore and revitalize denuded wetlands in the globe, these principles come together and express common guides to the success of rejuvenating the wetland system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first step is to clearly plan the project focusing on critical points that will ensure the accomplishment of the activity. Next is to mobilize the design, in which requires funds, in a procedure that won’t disturb or harm the surrounding areas. It must be ensured that the outcome of the project will be, as much as possible, like the former wetland system, to avoid further damage to the environment rather than to revitalize the land. And lastly, there should be a constant maintenance and management in the area to preserve the beauty and functionality of the structured landscape.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By following these few principles in the reconstruction of denuded wastelands, the future of the wetlands and rivers of Australia, and also the world, will be brighter. References USEPA.(2006). Definitions distinctions. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from River Corridor and Wetland Restoration Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/defs.html#Defs ______. (2002) Greenough. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from Westernbelle Australian Adventures Web site: http://www.westernbelle.com/gren.html ______. (2002) Hutt river province. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from Principality of hutt river.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Web site: http://www.westernbelle.com/H.HTML#huttriver Blacklow et. al, (2001). River restoration and management in australia: a national framework for vocational education and training and graduate studies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006 Web site: http://www.rivers.gov.au/acrobat/uwa26/uwa26final.pdf#search=river%20restoration%20western%20australia McGee, T. (2005). Guiding principles for river restoration and sustainable product design. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from Treehugger Web site: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2005/04/guiding_princip.php ______. (2005). Evaluation sourcebook. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from Ecosystem Management Initiative Website:http://www.snre.umich.edu/ecomgt/pubs/wetlands/hennepin/2.4.PDF#search=river%20wetland%20restoration%20principles Peck, D. (2003). Resolution VIII.16 on wetland restoration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006, from the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Web site:http://ramsar.org/res/key_res_viii_16_e.htm ______. 2002-2003 Australian government envirofund projects western australia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006, from National Heritage Trust   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Web site:http://www.nht.gov.au/envirofund/2002-2003/general/wa-projects.html Atapattu, D. (2001). Hutt river floodplain management plan (hrfmp): project leader’s report.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006, from the Regional Council Web site:http://www.gw.govt.nz/council-reports/pdfs/reportdocs/2001_110_1_Report.pdf#search=hutt%20river%20restoration%20project _____. 2001-2002 Coastcare projects: Western australia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006, from National Heritage Trust   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Web site:http://www.nht.gov.au/nht1/programs/coastcare/wa-01-02.html#45 ______. (2006). Fact sheet 9 planning for river restoration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved September 25, 2006, from River Landscapes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Web site:http://www.rivers.gov.au/manage/is9planning.htm

Employee/Employer Rights Essay -- Business and Management Studies

Employee/Employer Rights I am writing this coursework to explain the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees at Richer Sounds. I will also explain the procedures to deal with disputes and with health and safety issues that occur in Richer Sounds. First of all I will describe the main laws, which protect employees within businesses. All businesses/organisations must display details of the Health and Safety at Work Act in a prominent place. A legal requirement at work is to have a safe environment and both employees and employers have to abide by the Health and Safety at Work Act and various regulations that have followed this act. The responsibility of safety is that of each line manager and, finally, the chief executive or head of the organisation. The Human Resources Department also have a part in Health and Safety as they provide information and support to managers on Health and Safety issues. Usually in large organisations they have a health and safety officer who has overall responsibilities for health and safety policies and training. Within other organisations there may be a safety committee, which is made up of representatives from managers to employees. The responsibility of this group is to make sure that all legal requirements are being met. Many businesses also have safety representatives who attend meetings of the safety committee. The representatives are selected by recognised trade unions and elected by union members, n...

Thomas Gordon’s Concept of “Twelve Roadblocks to Effective Communication”

The objective of communication is to obtain a close rapport between interlocutors. If the goal is reached, it is easier to tackle with the encountered problem. This is the way how Thomas Gordon, the author of the bestseller â€Å"Parent Effectiveness Training† (1970, New York), perceives the role of good listening. In order to focus readers’ attention on fundamental mistakes people make, he listed twelve common types of ineffective responses.These are so called â€Å"Twelve Roadblocks to Effective Communication† or, playfully, â€Å" The Dirty Dozen†. Gordon claims that they act as communication barriers because they interrupt the process of solving the problem, whereas our verbal support should be limited to directing partner’s thoughts until the partner comes up with the solution. What is more, instead of encouraging, these responses carry a harmful meaning which is often unintentional.On the basis of what kind of hidden message they convey, those twelve roadblocks can be divided into five groups: utterances that communicate intolerance, ones of inadequacies and faults, ones that deny there is a problem, ones solving the problem for the person and the last ones which divert the person from the problem. The first group consist of responses that tell our interlocutor that we do not accept his or her point of view. Responses like ordering, directing or commanding communicate that your partner’s needs are being ignored.Warning or threatening may cause resentment, anger, resistance and rebellion. Giving advice (â€Å"shoulds† and â€Å"oughts†), making suggestions, providing solutions produces a situation when the helper thinks he or she is superior to the other person. Additionally, responses involving persuading with logic, arguing, lecturing and moralizing, preaching, telling them their duty assure your partner of their low self-esteem and will bring counter-arguments. Judging, criticizing, disagreeing, bl aming and shaming, ridiculing, labeling, name-calling, stereotyping go together.These responses obviously make the partner feel incompetent and inadequate. In effect, there is no place for effective communication. Nevertheless, replies including Interpreting and analyzing plays the same role. A group of roadblocks that deny there is a problem comprises such responses as reassuring, sympathizing, consoling as well as agreeing, approving and praising. Making your partner feel better, instead of listening, does not have a desired effect in a helping relationship. It simply ends the struggle with the problem, for example ‘You’ve done the right thing’.Next group goes for responses that solve the problem for the partner. At first glance, there is nothing devastating in questioning and probing. However, one should ask right questions. Questions like ‘Why? ’, ‘Where? ’, ‘Who? ’, ‘When? ’ may occur too deep and messy. Wi thdrawing, distracting, humoring, changing the subject belong to the last category. Responses, such as , ‘Let’s talk about that some other time’ or ‘That reminds me of†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, diminish the problem and make your partner feel unimportant. Therefore, there is little chance to pursued the problem. It will be postponed and never solved.

The Economic Impact of Major Sports Events: a Review of Ten Events in the Uk

The economic impact of major sports events: a review of ten events in the UK Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman Introduction Over recent years there has been a marked contrast between the discussions around the economic impact of major sports events in North America on the one hand and most of the rest of the world on the other. In the USA the sports strategies of cities in the USA have largely been based on infrastructure (stadium) investment for professional team sports, in particular, American football, baseball, basketball, and ice hockey.Over the last decade cities have offered greater and greater incentives for these professional teams to move from their existing host cities by offering to build a new stadium to house them. The teams sit back and let the host and competing cities bid up the price. They either move to the city offering the best deal or they accept the counter offer invariably put to them by their existing hosts. This normally involves the host city building a brand new stadium to replace the existing one which may only be ten or ? fteen years old.The result is that at the end of the 1990s there were thirty major stadium construction projects in progress, around one-third of the total professional sports infrastructure, but over half of all professional teams in the USA have expressed dissatisfaction with their current facilities. Baade (2003) argues that since 1987 approximately 80 per cent of the professional sports facilities in the United States will have been replaced or have undergone major renovation with the new facilities costing more than $19 billion in total, and the public providing $13. billion, or 71 per cent, of that amount. The use of taxpayers money to subsidize pro? t-making professional sports teams is justi? ed on the basis that such investment of public money is a worthwhile investment since it is clearly outweighed by the stream of economic activity that is generated by having a professional sports team r esident in the city. Such justi? cations are often backed up by economic impact studies that show that the spending of sports tourists in the host city more than justi? es such a public subsidy.Crompton (1995, 2001) has illustrated that such studies have often been seriously methodologically ? awed, and the real economic bene? t of such visitor spending is often well below that speci? ed in such studies. This is  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman particularly the case given the need for such huge infrastructure investment needed to attract the professional teams.In Europe, however, city sport strategies have concentrated more on attracting a series of major sports events, such as World or European Championships, again justi? ed on the economic impact generated through hosting such events. Wh ereas many American sports economists (eg, Baade, 1996; Noll & Zimbalist, 1997; Coates & Humphreys, 1999) now consistently agree that studies show no signi? cant direct economic impact on the host cities from the recent stadium developments, it is not so evident that European style hosting of major sports events is not economically bene? cial to the host cities.This chapter looks at ten major sports events, all World or European Championships hosted by UK cities over recent years, all of which have been studied by the current authors. The difference from the North American situation is that these events move around from city to city in response to bids from potential host cities and in all ten cases did not require speci? c capital infrastructure investment to be staged but rather were staged in existing facilities. Before we look at these events, however, we brie? y review the literature on the economic importance of major sports events.The biggest by far of such events is the summ er Olympic Games, in particular in the infrastructure investment required to host the event, and the next section is devoted just to that event before the literature relating to all other major sports events is considered. The economic importance of the summer Olympic Games Despite the huge sums of money invested in hosting the summer Olympics, there has never been an economic impact study of the type described in this paper to assess the economic bene? ts of hosting the event. Kasimati (2003) summarized the potential long-term bene? ts to a city of hosting the summerOlympics: newly constructed event facilities and infrastructure, urban revival, enhanced international reputation, increased tourism, improved public welfare, additional employment, and increased inward investment. In practice, however, there is also a possible downside to hosting the event including: high construction costs of sporting venues and related other investments, in particular in transport infrastructure; tem porary congestion problems; displacement of other tourists due to the event; and underutilized elite sporting facilities after the event which are of little use to the local population.Kasimati (2003) analysed all impact studies of the summer Olympics from 1984 to 2004 and found, in each case, that the studies were done prior to the Games, were not based on primary data, and were, in general, commissioned by proponents of the Games. He found that the economic impacts were likely to be in? ated since the studies did not take into account supply-side constraints such as investment crowding out, price increases due to resource scarcity, and the displacement of tourists who would have been in the host city had the Olympics not been held there.Although no proper economic impact study using 42  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events primary data has ever been carried out for the summer Olympics, Preuss (2004) has produced a compr ehensive analysis of the economics of the summer Olympics for every summer Olympics from Munich 1972 using secondary data, and employing a novel data transformation methodology which allows comparisons across the different Olympics.Despite collecting a massive amount of secondary data, Preuss’s conclusion on the estimation of the true economic impact of the summer Olympics is the same as Kasimati’s: ‘The economic bene? t of the Games . . . is often overestimated in both publications and economic analyses produced by or for the OCOG [Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games] . . . multipliers tend to be too high and the number of tourists is estimated too optimistically’ (Preuss, 2004: 290).Preuss, however, does make some strong conclusions from his analysis. He shows, for instance, that every summer Olympics since 1972 made an operational surplus that the OCOG can spend to bene? t both national and international sport. Popular stories in the mass media re lating to massive losses from hosting the Olympics have nothing to do with the Games’ operational costs and revenues. Rather it is to do with the capital infrastructure investments made by host cities on venues, transport, accommodation and telecommunications.These are investments in capital infrastructure that have a life of possibly 50 years or more and yet many commentators count the full capital cost against the two to three weeks of the Games themselves. Preuss points out that in strict economic terms this is nonsense: it is impossible and even wrong to state the overall effect of different Olympics with a single surplus or de? cit. The true outcome is measured in the infrastructural, social, political, ecological and sporting impacts a city and country receive from the Games. (Preuss, 2004: 26)Estimating the true economic impact of a summer Olympic Games properly therefore requires a huge research budget in addition to the other costs associated with the Games. Research needs to start several years before the Olympics and continue several years after they have ? nished. So far nobody has been willing to fund such research. There is increasing research output, however, relating to other major sporting events. The economic importance of other major sports events The study of hallmark events or mega-events became an important area of the tourism and leisure literature in the 1980s.The economic bene? ts of such events have been the main focus of such literature, although broader based multidisciplinary approaches have been suggested (Hall, 1992; Getz, 1991). Within the area of mega-events, sports events have attracted a signi? cant amount of attention. One of the ? rst major studies in this area was the study of the impact of the 1985 Adelaide Grand Prix (Burns, Hatch & Mules, 1986). This was followed by an in-depth study of the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics (Ritchie, 1984;  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 43Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman Ritchie & Aitken, 1984, 1985; Ritchie & Lyons, 1987, 1990; Ritchie & Smith, 1991). Mules and Faulkner (1996) point out that hosting major sports events is not always an unequivocal economic bene? t to the cities that host them. They emphasize that, in general, staging major sports events often results in the city authorities losing money even though the city itself bene? ts greatly in terms of additional spending in the city. They cite the example of the 1994 Brisbane World Masters Games which cost Brisbane A$2. million to put on but generated a massive A$50. 6 million of additional economic activity in the state economy. Mules and Faulkner’s basic point is that it normally requires the public sector to be involved in the role of staging the event and incurring these losses in order to generate the bene? ts to the local economy: This ? nancial structure is common to many special events, and results in the losses alluded to above. It seems unlikely that private operators would be willing to take on the running of such events because of their low chance of breaking even let alone turning a pro? t.The reason why governments host such events and lose taxpayers’ money in the process lies in spillover effects or externalities. (Mules & Faulkner, 1996: 110) It is not a straightforward job, however, to establish a pro? t and loss account for a speci? c event. Major sports events require investment in new sports facilities and often this is paid for in part by central government or even international sports bodies. Thus, some of this investment expenditure represents a net addition to the local economy since the money comes in from outside. Also such facilities remain after the event has ? ished acting as a platform for future activities that can generate additional tourist expenditure (Mules & Faulkner, 1996). Increasingly, sports events are part of a broader strategy aimed at raising the pro? le of a city and therefore succe ss cannot be judged simply on a pro? t and loss basis. Often the attraction of events is linked to a re-imaging process and, in the case of many cities, is invariably linked to strategies of urban regeneration and tourism development (Bianchini & Schengel, 1991; Bramwell, 1995; Loftman & Spirou, 1996; Roche, 1994).Major events if successful have the ability to project a new image and identity for a city. The hosting of major sports events is often justi? ed by the host city in terms of long-term economic and social consequences, directly or indirectly resulting from the staging of the event (Mules & Faulkner, 1996). These effects are primarily justi? ed in economic terms, by estimating the additional expenditure generated in the local economy as the result of the event, in terms of the bene? ts injected from tourism-related activity and the subsequent re-imaging of the city following the success of the event (Roche, 1992).Cities staging major sports events have a unique opportunity to market themselves to the world. Increasing competition between broadcasters to secure broadcasting rights to major sports events has led to a massive escalation in fees for such rights which, in turn, means broadcasters give blanket coverage at peak 44  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events times for such events, enhancing the marketing bene? ts to the cities that stage them. Methodology The ten events under survey are detailed in Table 1.All but one of them, the 2002 World Snooker Championship (which was a contract for the host city, Shef? eld), were studied as part of a UK Sport funded research project to estimate the economic impact of the events. UK Sport is the body responsible in the UK for a ‘World Class Events Programme’ that supports sports governing bodies in their attempts to bring major sports events to the UK. Financial support is provided from lottery funding for both the bidding process and t he staging of the event if the bid is successful.Two of the events studies (the World Boxing Championships in Belfast, and the World Half-Marathon Championships in Bristol) were joint contracts with both UK Sport and the host cities (ie, Belfast and Bristol). The ten studies featured in this chapter were conducted using essentially the same methodology. This, therefore, provides the added value of having a dataset in which the events are comparable. It is the results of cross event comparability and the issues arising from such comparisons upon which this chapter isTable 1: Major sports events surveyed in the U. K. Year 1997 1997 1997 1998 1999 1999 1999 2001 2001 2002 Event World Badminton Championships European Junior Boxing Championships European Junior Swimming Championships European Short Course Swimming Championships European Show Jumping Championships World Judo Championships World Indoor Climbing Championships World Amateur Boxing Championships World Half Marathon Championsh ips World Snooker Championship Abbreviation WBC EJBC EJSC ESCSC ESJC WJC WICC WABC WHM WSC Host City Glasgow Birmingham Glasgow Shef? ld Hickstead Birmingham Birmingham Belfast Bristol Shef? eld  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 45 Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman primarily concerned. The methodology employed in the economic impact studies was divided into ten stages, which can be summarized as follows: †¢ Quantify the proportion of respondents who live in the host city and those who are from elsewhere; †¢ Group respondents by their role in the event, eg, spectators, competitors, media, of? ials etc; †¢ Establish basic characteristics of visitors, eg, where they live and composition of the party; †¢ Determine the catchment area according to local, regional, national or international respondents; †¢ Quantify the number of visitors staying overnight in the host city and the proportion of these making use of commercial acc ommodation; †¢ Quantify how many nights those using commercial accommodation will stay in the host city and what this accommodation is costing per night; †¢ Quantify for those staying overnight (commercially or otherwise) and day visitors, the daily spend in the host city on six standard expenditure categories; †¢ Quantify what people have budgeted to spend in the host city and for how many people such expenditure is for; †¢ Establish the proportion of people whose main reason for being in the host city is the event; †¢ Determine if any spectators are combining their visit to an event with a holiday in order to estimate any wider economic impacts.Much of this analysis was undertaken using a standard questionnaire survey to interview key interest groups at an event and the data collected was then analysed using a specialist statistical software package and spreadsheets to calculate the additional expenditure in the host economy. Multipliers It is the direct i mpact attributable to additional expenditure that this research concentrated upon, in order to allow for meaningful comparisons between events. That is to say, the comparisons do not include induced impact derived from the application of multipliers to the additional expenditure calculations. To do so would be to compare host economies rather than speci? c events, as multipliers are speci? c to a given economy. Moreover, the information needed to establish a multiplier for a given local economy is not always readily available.As a result, historically, consultants have used highly technical and ambitious multipliers that are not empirically based and are often ‘borrowed’ from other sectors (eg, construction), or other economies. This ‘borrowed’ type of multiplier analysis can be considered only a poor approximation at best and any ? ndings are most likely to be erroneous – not least because the multiplier is unique to the prevailing local economic co nditions and, to reiterate, this type of research is about comparing events and not economies. Most of John Crompton’s criticisms of poor methodology in the carrying out of economic impact studies 46  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events of major events are related precisely to the incorrect choice or use of multipliers (see Crompton, 1995, 2001). ResultsAbsolute impact Graph 1 details the absolute additional expenditure directly attributable to staging each of the ten events. The most signi? cant economic impact is attributable to the 2002 World Snooker Championship closely followed by the 1997 World Badminton Championships. Both these events took place over a twoweek period and this extended period for the events did lead to higher economic impact. The World Half Marathon Championships was different from the other events in the sense that it did not take place in a stadium or ? xed seating area and there were no tickets sold for spectators. Consequently the crowd at this event has been estimated in conjunction with the local organizing committee, city authority and the police.This estimate of the number of spectators, which has been used to calculate the economic impact, is on the conservative side. In ? ve of the ten events, the additional expenditure generated in the host economies exceeded ? 1. 45 m, which might be termed a ‘major’ impact. Although the majority of the events detailed in Graph 1, however, could be described as ‘major’ in the sporting calendars of those who organize the events, closer inspection of the ? gures reveals that it does not follow that a ‘major event’ in sporting terms necessarily equates with having a ‘major’ economic impact. For example, although the two swimming events, the 1997 Junior Swimming Championships in Glasgow and the European Short Course Swimming Championships in Shef? ld, were both European Champ ionships, they made a relatively small contribution to the economy of the host cities. In a similar manner to the word ‘major’, the words ‘world championships’ do not necessarily mean that there will be a large downstream economic impact. The 1997 World Badminton event generated economic impacts of ? 2. 2 million, whereas the 2001 World Half Marathon and 1999 World Indoor Climbing Championship generated more modest impacts of ? 584,000 and ? 398,000 respectively. Impact per day Although the absolute economic impact attributable to a given event is important in quantifying the overall bene? t that an event might have, it is a somewhat ? wed basis for comparison as the duration of events is invariably different. For example, the World Badminton Championships took place over 14 days and the World Half Marathon was over inside one and a half hours. Thus in order to make a standardised comparison of the economic impact attributable to events it is useful to exam ine the economic impact per day of competition. The results of this analysis are shown in Graph 2.  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 47 Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman ?2,500,000 ? 2,265,092 ? 2,221,130 ?2,196,298 ?2,000,000 ?1,943,715 ?1,500,000 ?1,485,141 ?1,000,000 ?583,942 ? 508,920 ? 500,000 ? 397,921 ? 314,513 ? 257,802 2002 World Snooker 1997 World Badminton 1999 European Show Jumping 1999 World Judo 2001 World 2001 World Half 1997 European 1999 World 1998 European 1997 European Amateur Boxing Marathon Junior Boxing Indoor Climbing Short Course Junior Swimming Swimming Graph 1: Economic impact of ‘major’ sports events. ?700,000 ?600,000 ?583,942 ?500,000 ?485,929 ? 439,260 ?400,000 ?300,000 ?200,000 ?185,643 ? 158,652 ? 133,241 ? 132,640 ? 104,838 ? 64,451 ?100,000 ?56,547 ?- World Half Marathon World Judo European World Amateur World World Snooker World Indoor European European Show Jumping Boxing Badminton Climbing Short Course Junior Swimming Swimming European Junior Boxing Graph 2: Daily economic impact of major sports events. 48  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports eventsIn Graph 2 we see that the events with the highest absolute economic impact, The World Badminton Championships and the World Snooker Championship, are only ? fth and sixth in importance in relation to economic impact per day and it is the World Half Marathon Championship which is most important on this measure, where the daily impact and the absolute impact are identical, closely followed by the World Judo Championships and European ShowJumping Championships. Visitor and organizational spend Generating economic impact is not UK Sport’s rationale for attracting major events to the UK. As previously suggested, however, it is a useful device by which to justify the funding of an event in economic terms.Therefore in order to be able to forecast economic impact it is essen tial to understand the components that create economic impact. In broad terms these can be identi? ed as: †¢ Organizational expenditure, ie, expenditure made directly by the organizers of an event in the locality where the event is taking place. †¢ Competitor or delegation expenditure, ie, expenditure made directly by those taking part in the event and their support staff in the locality where the event is taking place. †¢ Other visitor expenditure ie, expenditure made directly by those people involved with an event other than the organizers and delegations. Other visitor groups include of? cials, media representatives and spectators.In the interest of simplicity the three types of expenditure can be collapsed into two categories, ie, organizational expenditure and visitor expenditure (delegation and other visitor expenditure combined). Using the ten events in the sample, the relative amounts of expenditure attributable to organizational and visitor expenditure can be seen in Graph 3. Graph 3 indicates that for all except one of the events (the European Junior Boxing Championships), the economic impact attributable to organizational expenditure was a minor part of the total economic impact with a highest percentage score of 26% (World Amateur Boxing Championships) and a lowest percentage score of 0% in the European Junior Swimming (not illustrated). The European Junior Boxing Championships was a relatively small event which did not attract signi? cant numbers of spectators.For the events included in this sample, the vast majority of the economic impact (greater than 80%) was caused by visitors and therefore it is logical to concentrate the subsequent secondary analyses on visitor expenditure. The reason why the majority of events in this research have relatively low levels of organizational expenditure is because they were all events that took place within existing facilities and existing infrastructure. There was no need to build or upgrade exi sting facilities and therefore virtually all expenditure incurred by organizers was on revenue items necessary for the operational running of the event.  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 49Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman 100% 7% 7% 8% 9% 10% 12% 13% 26% 90% 80% 52% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 48% 20% 10% 0% 93% 93% 92% 91% 90% 88% 87% 74% European Short World Indoor Course Climbing Swimming World Snooker World Judo European Show Jumping World Half World Badminton World Amateur European Junior Marathon Boxing Boxing % Visitor spend % Organisational spend Graph 3: The relative proportions of visitor and organizational spending at major sports events. Visitor expenditure At this point it is worth disaggregating total visitor expenditure into its component parts of spectator, competitor (delegation) expenditure and other visitor expenditure.In 1997 the six events studied were illustrated along a continuum of ‘spectator’ to ‘competitor a nd others’. Using the results of the ten events studied since 1997, this continuum can be upgraded to indicate the composition of visitor expenditure at an event. The revised continuum is shown in Graph 4 and this disaggregates the expenditure of ‘others’ from that of ‘competitors’. From Graph 4 it can be seen that at ? ve of the ten events featured, the majority (at least 51%) of the economic impact can be attributed to spectators and these would be categorized as ‘spectator driven’ events. By contrast, at the remaining events the economic impact was driven by other groups (principally competitors), in particular at the two swimming events.The Short Course and Junior Swimming events are characterized by having large numbers of competitors staying in commercial accommodation and relatively small numbers of spectators (990 and 640 admissions respectively) most of whom are either the friends or families of the competitors; such events are categorized as ‘competitor driven’. 50  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events 100% 12% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 9% 0% World Indoor World Snooker European Show European World Judo Climbing Jumping Junior Boxing Spectator World European Short European World Half World Amateur Junior Marathon Boxing Badminton Course Swimming Swimming Other 8% 9% 4% 13% 28% 6% 15% 22% 12% 24% 10% 19% 28% 35% 36% 33% 44% 40% 81% 78% 74% 72% 56% 66% 51% 43% 37% 32% Competitor/DelegationsGraph 4: The continuum between spectators’ and other visitors’ expenditure. Key determinants of economic impact In order to investigate the relationship between the absolute scale of an economic impact and the number of people who generated it, we now examine economic impact against the total number of spectator admissions as shown in Graph 5. This does not include events which were not staged in stadiums and where the specta tor admissions were approximations, as there were no audience data available (eg, the World Half Marathon). Graph 5 indicates that there is a very high correlation (r = 0. 91) between the number of spectator admissions at an event and the economic impact attributable to that event.Therefore it can be concluded that if economic impact is an important consideration in determining whether or not to support an event, then the number of spectators is the principal determinant of absolute economic impact. As a consequence of this ? nding it can be concluded that in elite level sport (ie, the type of event likely to be supported by UK Sport), ‘competitor driven’ events are unlikely to generate as much economic impact in absolute terms compared with ‘spectator driven’ events. It could be argued that if all or most of the spectators attending an event were local people, then the economic impact attributable to that event would be relatively small as there would be o nly a small net change in the economy ie, most expenditure would be ‘deadweight’. In order to investigate this possibility 51  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman ?2,500,000 Correlation coefficient r = 0. 91 Snooker Badminton ? 2,000,000 Show Jumping Judo Economic Impact ?1,500,000 Boxing ?1,000,000 ?500,000 Junior Boxing Indoor Climbing Short Course Swimming Junior Swimming ?0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 Spectator Admissions Graph 5: The relationship between spectator admissions and absolute economic impact. further, we examine the relative proportions of local to non-local admissions as detailed in Graph 6. According to Graph 6, there was only one instance of local admissions exceeding those of non-local people: the World Half Marathon Championships.The World Half Marathon had 55% of spectators from the local area. This was a direct result, however, of the Bristol Half Maratho n running alongside the elite event, hence there were many people from Bristol supporting family and friends in the mass participation event. Moreover, of the remaining events, the event organizers at the European Show Jumping and the World Amateur Boxing interfered with the market conditions, in that signi? cant numbers of complimentary tickets were passed to local people in order to increase the attendance at the events. Hence it is reasonable to conclude that the majority of spectators to events come from outside the local area and this therefore con? ms the earlier assertion that absolute economic impact is critically dependent on the number of spectators attending an event – a point emphasized still further when one considers that the correlation between non-local admissions and absolute impact while still high (r = 0. 87), is not as high as the correlation using total spectator admissions. The key points emerging from this initial results section can be summarized as fo llows: †¢ The most appropriate way to compare the economic impact attributable to various events is on an economic impact per day basis; 52  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events 100% 9% 90% 13% 17% 25% 27% 34% 38% 45% 55% 80% 70% 60% 50% 100% 91% 87% 83% 75% 73% 66% 62% 55% 45% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% European Junior World Indoor Swimming 990 Climbing 5,444 World Judo 16,000European Short World Snooker European Junior World Amateur World Badminton European Show World Half Course 33,276 Boxing 1,690 Boxing 18,300 21,702 Jumping 40,000 Marathon 15,000 Swimming 640 Visitors Locals Graph 6: The relative proportions of non-local and local spectators at events. †¢ Spectator driven events are likely to have a higher economic impact than competitor driven events; †¢ The key determinant of total economic impact is the number of spectators attending an event; †¢ For most major sporting events, visitors from outside t he immediate area are likely to account for the majority of admissions. Additional bene? ts The Balanced Scorecard approach to event evaluation This ? nal section may interest event organizers and practitioners, as well as social scienti? analysts, in that it acknowledges that the bene? ts associated with events are far reaching and not merely con? ned to economic impacts. This section uses the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ approach to event evaluation (see Figure 1) developed from original work at Harvard Business School. Apart from an event’s economic impact, additional aims and bene? ts might arise in the form of media value linked to coverage at home or internationally. Moreover, linked to such coverage may be place marketing bene? ts for key aspects of the host city or area, which could ultimately impact upon tourism by increasing the number of visitors to the area in future as a result of media coverage afforded to an event.Public perceptions of places can also impr ove as a  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 53 Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman Economic Impact Sports Development Event Aims Media & Sponsor Evaluation Place Marketing Effects Figure 1: The ‘Balanced Scorecard’ approach to evaluating events. result of people’s experiences at major sports events, which in turn might lead to repeat visits as evidenced by qualitative feedback from spectators at some of the events. Furthermore, an immediate bene? t of staging an event might involve some form of sports development impact which could encourage more people to take up a sport being showcased.The long-term effect of any increase in participation could be tracked, although it may be dif? cult to prove causality. To illustrate some of these points, examples are drawn from three events: the European Short Course Swimming Championship, World Amateur Boxing and World Half Marathon. Examples of additional bene? ts Apart from revealing an e conomic impact on Shef? eld of almost ? 315,000, the research into the European Short Course Swimming Championships at the time also audited the public pro? le by analysing the television coverage of the event. In addition to the UK television coverage the event was also shown across Europe in Germany, Finland, Italy and Croatia. Audience data and broadcasts were con? med by the Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board (BARB) and calculations using industry standard methodologies were made relative to: †¢ Percentage Share: The proportion of people watching a given programme expressed as a function of the total number of people watching television at that time. †¢ Television Rating (TVR): This is the key performance indicator of the size of an audience for any given programme. TVR is expressed as the percentage of all the people in a country with access to a television actually watching the programme or programme segment in question. 54  © The Editorial Board of the S ociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events Table 2: Television coverage of the European Short Course Swimming Championships Indicator Number of Programmes Total Duration (Minutes) Cumulative Audience (000s) Highest Share Achieved Highest TVR Achieved UK 6 369 5,451 23. 0% 4. % Other European 12 718 2,522 9. 8% 9. 0% Total 18 1,087 7,973 23. 0% 9. 0% Using the ? ve countries from which the broadcast and audience data were available, the European Short Course Swimming Championships attracted a cumulative audience of 7,973,000 of which 5,451,000 were UK viewers as summarized in Table 2. The data has two practical applications: †¢ For event promoters, in order to acquire a greater appreciation of the commercial value of the event in terms of related advertising and sponsorship sales. Commercial revenues contribute to the operating costs of an event and hence achieving value for money is the key when advertising and sponsorship sales are being made. For host venues, advertisers and sponsors, who can evaluate the return on their investment. For example, the total value of the Shef? eld City Council support of the event was ? 25,000. This can be traded off against the value of the place marketing achieved. Using the data in Table 2, a degree of quantitative evaluation of place marketing can be made. A ‘Shef? eld National City of Sport’ advertising board was on display at pool deck level alongside the advertising board of the main sponsor (Adidas). Using sponsorship industry standard methodology, it is relatively easy to calculate the proportion of the 1,087 broadcast minutes during which the board was on full view promoting the city of Shef? eld.The World Amateur Boxing Championships in Belfast achieved a total cumulative audience of 6. 6 million in the UK, which included 330,000 young people under the age of 16 (ie, potential for a sports development impact). Across 13 programmes (mainly on BBC2), the event was screened for a total of 551 minutes (9 hours 11 minutes), with live feed and highlights screened to more than 20 countries. The UK viewing ? gures peaked at 2. 06 million with the audience share at this point being 22%. Based on analyses of the television coverage using specialist sponsorship evaluations, estimates suggested that a major sponsor enjoyed media exposure worth ? 51,014 in the UK alone.Data such as this provides a sound baseline against which sponsors can assess the extent to which they have achieved a return on  © The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 55 Chris Gratton, Simon Shibli, and Richard Coleman their investment. In this instance the sponsor invested ? 63,000 and in return they received exposure that would have cost more than ? 51,000 to purchase in the commercial marketplace, ie, 81% of their total investment. In addition to UK television coverage, broadcasters from other countries also bought the rights to screen the event and thus there would be additional media value obtained for the sponsor from this worldwide exposure.Although the worldwide television exposure was not analysed in this instance, it is possible to access the audience data as demonstrated by the European Short Course Swimming Championships example, or alternatively where this is not possible, sponsorship evaluation companies can apply a ‘rate card’ based on a ? at rate for 30 seconds of advertising time on a particular channel. A similar methodology can be adopted in order to estimate the place marketing effects associated with television coverage. At the World Half Marathon, Bristol City Council was responsible for underwriting the event and for a signi? cant proportion of the running costs. In return the place marketing bene? ts linked to the exposure of the ‘Bristol’ brand, amounted to a notional ? 2,000 of exposure. In order to maximize any place marketing bene? ts for a particular location, event organizers should consider working close ly with the host broadcaster in order to ensure the showcasing of key local attractions as the backdrop to human-interest features around the event coverage. Shef? eld City Council used such human interest features (known as ‘postcards’) to great effect during a major snooker event in 2002 such that the combined place marketing effects for the city were a notional ? 3. 2 million, ie, the commercial cost of the exposure created by the event, based on the cost/1000 viewers of a 30 second television commercial.Apart from media value and place marketing, the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ approach also refers to sports development effects and these were analysed during the research at the World Amateur Boxing in Belfast. In the run-up to and during the championships a community development programme with boxer Wayne McCulloch entitled ‘Train with Wayne’ provided young children and potential future champions with the opportunity to become involved in the spor t of boxing. Up to 100 youngsters participated during the televised build up to the Championship. During the event ‘Come and Try It’ sessions were enhanced by concessionary tickets to the event, school visits and discount packages.Furthermore, training for potential young boxers was also strengthened through the involvement of 300 local volunteers in the event, training for technical of? cials, time-keepers, judges, medical personnel and competition managers. This event has therefore left a broad legacy of enhanced skills which maybe used to maintain the impetus provided by the staging of the event. As well as the economic impact attributable to the World Amateur Boxing (? 1. 49 m), the pro? le of Belfast as a city of world-class sport was enhanced through the marketing of the event and the televisual exposure of the ‘Belfast’ brand throughout the world. Collectively, the boxing and the previous success of the World Cross Country Championships provided the catalyst to formulate 56 The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 2006 The economic impact of major sports events an events strategy for Northern Ireland, designed to help re-image the Province through sport. In summary, given the complex aims and objectives increasingly associated with major sports events, in future more detailed analysis and evaluation will be necessary to satisfy the needs of different partners. Adopting a methodology linked to (for example) the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ could move beyond simple economic impact studies, to include TV, media and sponsorship evaluations as well as sports development, home soil advantage and other legacies. ConclusionsThis chapter has provided a detailed overview of ten economic impact studies undertaken at major sports events, all World or European Championships, in the UK since 1997. Each study represents a value-for-money appraisal of an event, by quantifying the net change in the host economy that is directly attri butable to the event and measurable in cash terms using detailed audit trails. The evidence presented vindicates (in economic terms) the decisions made by UK Sport to use Lottery funding via the World Class Events Programme to attract many of the events. Moreover, the detailed database of event evaluations possessed by UK Sport provides the evidence to inform future strategic decisions relative to the type of events that the UK may consider bidding for in years to come.According to such evidence and in order to maximize potential economic impact, the following should be considered prior to bidding: †¢ The ability of the event to attract people from outside the host area and thereby reduce the ‘deadweight’ percentage of those attending; †¢ Generally the greater the absolute number of spectators the more signi? cant the economic impact and junior events are likely to have the smallest impacts as they rarely attract many spectators; †¢ The economic impact is not necessarily a function of the status of an event in world sporting terms; †¢ The number of days of competition and the availability of local commercial accommodation to allow visitors to extend their dwell times in the host area.Beyond the development of the economic impact model, this chapter has demonstrated how the event evaluations have evolved and should continue to evolve in order to better understand the likely legacies of events long after any medals have been presented. 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